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animals, biology, Conservation, education, endangered, extinct, IUCN Red List, mammal, wildlife
Endangered Species series main post.
Mammals (class: Mammalia) are a taxonomic group broadly defined by their milk-producing mammary glands, possession of hair and three ossicles in the middle ear. They also uniquely possess a neocortex; the area of the brain involved in higher functions. Most mammals give birth to live young though this is not true of the monotremes – platypus (Ornithorhynchidae) and echidna (Tachyglossidae) – which lay eggs. It is a relatively small taxa with only around 6,000 described species. These species range in size from Kitti’s hog-nosed bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai) at 30-40mm and the Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus) which weighs only 1.8 grams, to the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) which with a length of 33m and a weight of 180 tons is the most massive animal known to have existed. True mammals first appeared in the Triassic when they exploited niches available to small, nocturnal predators. The group does not seem to have diversified much beyond these niches (though taxonomic orders were largely already in place) until the end of the reign of the dinosaurs c. 65 million years ago when they rapidly evolved to fill larger niches.
[1] Wund, M., Myers., P. (2005). Mammalia. Animal Diversity Web. [online]
[2] Tree of Life Web Project (1995). Mammalia. Mammals. Version 01 January 1995 (temporary). [online]
[3] Kumar, V. (2011). Mammalia. Encyclopedia of Life. [online]
Bawean deer (Axis kuhlii)
Little studied, this small deer inhabits dense upland forests of Bawean Island, Indonesia, an area of 200km2. This represents the most restricted range of any deer species. Morphologically similar to the India’s closely related hog deer, they are a little-seen species due to their largely nocturnal habits. The total wild population is thought to be around 250 individuals. Predators including wild pigs, macaques and pythons may account for some individuals but their impact is likely to be minimal. Feral dogs pose a far greater threat and, along with habitat loss and a decline in habitat quality, are the main causes of continued decline.
[1] Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J. 2008. Axis kuhlii. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4
[2] ARKive (2010). Bawean deer (Axis kuhlii). [online]
[3] Huffman, B. (2011). Axis kuhlii. Ultimateungulate.com. [online]
Image © Midori
Cozumel Raccoon (Procyon pygmaeus)
Also called the ‘Pygmy raccoon’, P. pygmaeus is much smaller and occurs over a far smaller range than its better-known cousin, the common raccoon (Procyon lotor). Their insular dwarfism is due to their isolation and evolution on Cozumel Island, Mexico. P. pygmaeus is thought to exhibit more specific ecological requirements than P. lotor and island-raccoon subspecies. They prefer mangrove and wetland habitats where they forage for crabs and shellfish. Such specificity in an island species inevitably limits the extent of occurrence (478km2) and population size. Indeed, there are fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining. Anthropogenic factors and the impact of hurricanes – which can account for 60% of juveniles – pose the greatest threats.
[1] Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D., García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K. 2008. Procyon pygmaeus. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] McFadden, K.W., Sambrotto, R.N., Medellin, R.A., Gompper, M.E. (2006). Feeding habits of endangered pygmy raccoons (Procyon pygemaeus) based on stable isotope and fecal analysis. Journal of Mammalogy. 87(3):501-509 [available online]
Maui’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui)
A subspecies of Hector’s dolphin, Maui’s dolphin (originally called the North Island Hector’s dolphin) is found along the West coast of North Island, New Zealand. They are largely threatened by gillnet and trawl fisheries where it they are caught as bycatch, pollution, boat strikes and inbreeding. Maui’s conform to the common dolphin stereotypes of sociability and playfulness, grouping in pods over five strong. They have a slow reproductive cycle with females calving every 2-4 years and then only producing a single offspring. Approximately 111 individuals remain. Only 28 of these are likely to be mature females.
[1] Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K. 2008. Cephalorhynchus hectori ssp. maui. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4
[2] Slooten, E., Dawson, S.M. (2008). Sustainable levels of human impact for Hector’s dolphin. The Open Conservation Biology Journal. 2:37-43. [available online]
[3] New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries and Department of Conservation (2007). Hector’s dolphin threat management discussion document. [available online]
Image © Will Rayment
Visayan Warty Pig (Sus cebifrons)
S. cebifrons is a gregarious pig which is endemic to the Visayan island chain – more specifically the islands of Panay, Negros and possibly Masbate – in the Philippines. The species are easily distinguished by the white band running laterally across the top of the nose which is present in both sexes. Little is known of their ecology though it is likely that in ideal circumstances it is an overall generalist. The remaining populations are fragmented, having been extirpated in 95% of the historical range by slash-and-burn agriculture, logging, hunting and hybridisation with feral animals. The species are nationally protected though enforcement is poor. The number of surviving individuals is unknown.
[1] Oliver, W. 2008. Sus cebifrons. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] Huffman, B. (2011). Sus cebifrons. Ultimateungulate.com [online]
Image © B. Gratwicke
Malabar Large-spotted Civet (Viverra civettina)
With a declining population numbering fewer than 250 mature individuals fragmented into sub-populations of fewer than 50 individuals in total, the Malabar Large-Spotted Civet is one of the planet’s most endangered mammals. Found in the Western Ghats, India, its favoured habitats of lowland swamps and forests have been completely removed. This forces the species to utilise previously undesirable degraded or secondary habitat and thickets in cashew plantations. Conflict with humans is a severe threat as the species will opportunistically raid for poultry. It does not currently exist within any protected areas.
[1] Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K. 2008. Viverra civettina. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4
[2] Schreiber, A., Wirth, R., Riffel, M., van Rompaey, H. (1989). Weasels, civets, mongooses and the relatives: An action plan for the conservation of mustelids and viverrids. IUCN/SSC Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group. [available online]
[3] Animal Info (2005). Viverra civettina (V Megaspila c.). [online]
Seychelles sheath-tailed bat (Coleura seychellensis)
Sheath-tailed bats are so-called due to the projection of the short tail through the tail membrane which effectively forms a sheath. The species is found on the islands of Silhouette, Mahe and Praslin in the Seychelles. There appears to have been several precipitous population declines; in the late 1800′s – 1900′s during the clearing of lowland forests and again since the 1970′s when the species was apparently common. It is now thought that there are fewer than 100 mature individuals remaining. Habitat loss for invertebrate prey, loss of roost sites and predation by introduced species are evident threats.
[1] Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W. 2008. Coleura seychellensis. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] ARKive.org (2011). Seychelles sheath-tailed bat (Coleura seychellensis). [online]
[3] Gerlach, J. (2007). Vocalisations of the Seychelles sheath-tailed bat Coleura seychellensis. Le Rhinolophe 18:xx-xx. [available online]
Northwest African Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus hecki)
This sub-species exhibits a limited distribution in northwest Africa, specifically Algeria, Niger, Benin and Burkina Faso. Though very little is known about the species, it probably mirrors the ecology and life histories of other A. jubatus subspecies. There exists no sub-population of more than 50 mature individuals; the total number of mature individuals is thought to be fewer than 250 animals.
[1] Belbachir, F. 2008. Acinonyx jubatus ssp. hecki. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
Image © Farid Belbachir
Giant Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger variani)
The Giant Sable is endemic to Angola where it inhabits the area between the Kwango and Luando rivers. This secretive species cuts a striking figure due to their large curved horns which are present in both sexes (though male horns are longer and more curved). They exhibit a preference for forest and associated riparian habitats where they a specific and preferential browsers. The population has declined and fragmented largely due to long-term military conflict and hunting; only 200-400 individuals remain. It is possible that a viable population (>50 individuals) exists within Luando Strict Reserve. Hybridisation with Roan antelope (H. equinus) is a current threat.
[1] IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2008. Hippotragus niger ssp. variani. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4
[2] Huffman, B. (2004). Hippotragus niger. Ultimateungulate.com. [online]
Dwarf Hutia (Mesocapromys nanus)
This species was thought to be extinct until an extant population was discovered. No specimens have been recorded since 1937 when the species was restricted to Zapata Swamp, Cuba. Introduced rats and mongooses and habitat destruction may have resulted in the extinction of the species some time ago. However, reports of tracks and droppings suggest that a small population may persist.
[1] Soy, J. & Silva, G. 2008. Mesocapromys nanus. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
Image depicts Demarest’s hutia (Capromys pilorides)
Brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata)
The brush-tailed bettong (or, to give it its Australian moniker, Woylie) belongs to the marsupial family Macropodidae which also includes kangaroos, wallabies and the like. Though it was once more widespread and could be found in a variety of habitats, it is now restricted to dry forest understory around Alice Springs, Western Australia. Despite conservation efforts, the species has continued to decline with some small populations disappearing altogether. There are translocated populations in Western Australia, New South Wales and South Australian islands which exhibit varying degrees of success.
[1] Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J. 2008. Bettongia penicillata. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] ARKive.org (2011). Brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata). [online]
[3] Start, A.N., Burbidge, A.A., Armstrong, D. (1995). Woylie recovery plan Wildlife Management Program. 16. State Recovery Plan. [available online]
Image © Gary Lewis
Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey (Oreonax flavicauda)
The Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey can be found in montane and cloud forest habitats of San Martin and Amazons in the Peruvian Andes. Originally described from a skin in the early 1800′s, it was re-discovered in 1974 (and anyone wishing to delve into this species’ history should note that it was reassigned from the genus Lagothrix to Oreonax in the early 2000′s). Since this time, the species has suffered a significant population decline as its previously inaccessible habitat was opened up by colonisation projects, road building, logging and other such projects. Habitat loss is a continued threat as is subsistence hunting by natives. Current population numbers are unknown.
[1] Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E. 2008. Oreonax flavicauda. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4
[2] Mittermeier, R.A., Wallis, J., Rylands, A.B. et al., eds (2009). Primates in Peril: The World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010. Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA.: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI). pp. 1–92. [available online]
[3] Buckingham, F., Shaneee., S. (2009). Conservation priorities for the Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Oreonax flavicauda): a GIS risk assessment and gap análysis. Primate Conservation (24). [available online]
Image © Platyrhinnus
Iriomote cat (Prionailurus iriomotensis)
This extremely rare and elusive species is endemic to the 284km2 Japanese island of Iriomote, 200km off the coast of Taiwan. Despite the largely mountainous evergreen nature of the island, the cat apparently favours lowland wetland, streams and small hills. Loss of this lowland habitat over the course of the last decade may have resulted in population decline. There are fewer than 100 individuals remaining though the population is contiguous.
[1] Izawa, M. 2008. Prionailurus bengalensis ssp. iriomotensis. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] Okamura, M., Doi, T., Sakaguchi, N., Izawa, M. (2000). Annual reproductive cycle of the Iriomote cat Felis iriomotensis. Mammal study. 25:75-85. [available online]
Pygmy three-toed sloth (Bradypus pygmaeus)
B. pygmaeus is thought to have diverged from the mainland brown-throated sloth (B. variegatus) lineage when the island of Escudo de Veraguas split from the Panamanian mainland c. 8900 years ago. The species seems to exist on nutritionally poor red mangrove leaves. Its island home is less than 5km2; what little habitat it supports is declining is quality. There is no information available on its population status.
[1] Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group 2008. Bradypus pygmaeus. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
[2] Anderson, R. P., Handley, C. O., Jr. (2001). A new species of three-toed sloth (Mammalia: Xenarthra) from Panama, with a review of the genus Bradypus. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 114(1):1–33. [available online]
Image © Bryson Voirin
Riverine Rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis)
The Riverine rabbit, probably the most endangered lagomorph in the world, is endemic to the Karoo region of South Africa. Its population has been severely fragmented due to anthropogenic impacts on the landscape. These factors have also served to isolate the remaining sub-populations, limiting or omitting effective gene flow. Though the rate of habitat loss has been arrested, hunting and accidental snaring does occur and the remaining population may become extinct within 50 years without intervention. There are fewer than 250 breeding pairs remaining.
New Zealand. The species was first described in 1886 but was not collected from Dent Island until 1975. In 1990, the breeding population was estimated at 60-100 birds, which declined further to 25 pairs in 1998. The species has been successfully introduced to Codfish and Campbell Islands. The total population is now estimated to be around 200 birds, though this includes captive specimens. Alien species, severe weather and avian diseases are primary threats.
endemic to Ecuador where it inhabits the north-western slopes of the Volcan Pichincha and the Cordillera de Toisan. The Pinchincha population numbers approximately 160 individuals and is restricted to an area of around 34km2. The total wild population has been estimated at between 250 and 999 individuals. Deforestation and habitat destruction is the greatest cause of past decline and the greatest ongoing threat to the species.
where it likely exists as a tiny and spatially restricted population. Little is known of the species, even amongst local people. It is thought that it exploits a more terrestrial lifestyle than that of other Aegotheles species. Based on a similar species – A. cristatus – it is thought that introduced predators and habitat loss are primary threats.
The Bengal florican is a bustard – the Family Otididae which includes the heaviest flying bird, the great bustard (Otis tarda) – which occurs in two populations; one in India, through Nepal, the other in southeast Asia. These populations fragmented into small sub-populations. The total global population is thought to be between 250 and 999 individuals. There have been no recent surveys of the Indian population. The primary threat is loss of key grassland habitat.
saw its population decimated in three generations. The remaining wild population – estimated at around 250-300 individuals – is found in Llanos de Mojos, Bolivia. Drastic reduction of the trade in wild-caught birds has halted the decline and there are signs of recovery. Other threats are hunting for feathers and meat, inter-specific competition and inbreeding of fragmented sub-populations.
(Furnariidae), a family famous for the horneros (Furnarius spp.) which build oven-like clay nests. The Rayadito is more demure, nesting in natural cavities. It is found only on the island of Alejandro Selkirk in the Juan Fernandez Islands, Chile. Recent surveys put the population at c. 248 birds though based on availability of suitable habitat, the total population may number as many as 1,000. Primary threats are habitat loss, climate change and an increase in red-backed hawks (Buteo polysoma exsul).
of the larger olive ibis (Bostrychia olivacea). It is endemic to São Tomé, São Tomé e Príncipe where it inhabits catchments in the south-west and centre of the island. Threatened by habitat loss and intense hunting pressure, the population has dwindled to fewer than 50 birds.
patches of forest to the north of the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean. One of these sub-populations now consists of fewer than 25 individuals. From 2003 to 2007, numbers of unpaired males increased by over 10% every year, indicative of a heavy male skew in the population. Predation by rats, disturbance, invasive plants and inter-specific competition continue to contribute to the decline of the species. Fewer than 25 breeding pairs remained as of 2007.
woodpecker was thought extinct for several decades. However, a male was caught in a mist net in 2006; several specimens have been recorded since. It is known from several states where it is thought to be associated with bamboo and babassu palm forest. The current population is cautiously estimated at 50-250 individuals. Due to the number of captures and the likely size of its range, however, it is likely that the population is large and the species may soon be downlisted.
name of this species is a misnomer. Rather than being a true hawk (Accipiter spp.), Ridgeway’s is in fact a buzzard (Buteo spp.). Once recorded from Haiti and many associated islands, the species is now likely restricted to Los Haitises National Park in the Dominican Republic. The species is undergoing an annual decline of c. 5-10% of breeding pairs at one site which also experiences 10-15% annual forest loss. There were estimated to be between 80 and 120 breeding pairs as of 2006. A translocation effort by the Peregrine Fund is ongoing.
efforts since 1981 when the population was just 23 individuals. Despite contstant effort, the species remains one of the rarest shorebirds in the world. The wild population has almost certainly been saved from extinction by the annual release of large numbers of captive-bred birds. Once widespread across North and South islands of New Zealand, breeding is now restricted to the Waitaki Valley on South Island. The total population stood at 78 birds as of 2007-08, 20 of which were breeding pairs. Predators, nest-site disturbance and stochastic weather events are the primary threats.
Norfolk Island where the remnant population is confined to Norfolk Island National Park. Despite occasional reported sightings, official surveys have been unable to find a single individual. If the species persists, it does so in low numbers. It is threatened by rat predation and the destruction and alteration of suitable habitat.
along the island chain which includes Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The extent of its breeding range or area of occupancy whilst at sea are unknown. The global population is thought to be larger than originally estimated due to the sighting of around 160 birds between New Britain and New Ireland in 2008. The species may be threatened at its breeding grounds by invasive predators.
Raso (7km2) in the Cape Verde Islands. The species’ population appears to fluctuate in response to climactic conditions with recorded numbers veering from a low of 20-50 pairs to around 250 individuals. The species is especially vulnerable during periods of low abundance as the sex ratio becomes skewed 3:1 towards males. Primary threats are grought and nest predation.
Extant coelacanths are the sole surviving taxa from a family of around 120 species and, along with several species of lungfish, are the only surviving sarcopterygian fish. The species was though to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous (65 million years ago) until a specimen was landed in 1938. Coelcanths are largely nocturnal predators and live at depths of between 300 and 700 feet in the waters around Comoros, South Africa, Madagascar and Mozambique. The fish has little to no commercial value; bycatch is the primary threat.
C. hemiodon is an inshore species of the Indo-West Pacific (largely India) whose numbers have likely been greatly affected by unregulated fisheries where it is likely they are caught as bycatch. Most of the 20 recorded specimens were caught prior to 1900 and no new specimens have been reported in the last 20 years despite repeated and detailed survey efforts.
The daggernose is a typical requiem shark (family Carcharhinidae; which includes the bull, blue and tiger sharks) which is endemic to northern South American inshore waters. With a gestation lasting 12 months and relatively low fecundity, this species is extremely susceptible to deleterious impacts on the population. The Brazilian population appears to have decreased by more than 90% between 1992 and 2002 with similar declines likely across the rest of the species range. Overexploitation and bycatch are the primary threats.
This species is known only from the shallow coastal waters surrounding Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where it has an extent of occurrence of less than 100km^2. As the species has not been recorded elsewhere and only four adult specimens are known, it is likely that there is only one small population remaining. The main threat is habitat degradation and destruction due to industry and tourism.
The porbeagle, or ‘mackerel shark’ (though the term is more commonly used to generally refer to the order Lamniformes or family Lamnidae, of which the porbeagle, great white and mako sharks are members) is a wide-ranging coastal and pelagic species which can be found in temperate and cold waters. Though the species has a global distribution, there is apparently little or no exchange between populations. It is a popular game fish, particularly in Ireland and the UK, and its meat is of high commercial value. Unsurprisingly, it is also caught as [profitable] bycatch. The species is known to have a low reproductive capacity, limiting the ability of a population to swiftly recover from population declines.
The striped smooth-hound is a coastal species with a restricted distribution, occurring between the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina (approximately 1,500km). Though the species appears to naturally occur in low densities, declines in trawled biomass described a population decline of 96% between 1994 and 1996 (declines had been evident since the 1980s). Targeted fishing and bycatch in coastal fisheries are the primary threats. The Brazilian population is thought to be nearing extinction.
The dwarf sawfish – also known as the ‘Queensland sawfish’ – is a shallow water inhabitant of estuarine waters in Northern and Northwestern Australia. The species is somewhat anadromous , often associating with marine environments around the wet season and often moving upriver to breed. Populations have declined as a result of commercial bycatch, recreational fishing and habitat degredation.
L. melitensis historically inhabited the Mediterranean Sea, where it was endemic to the coasts of Tunisia, Malta, Italy and Algeria (reports from the latter two countries are rare). The species now appears to be restricted to the Sicilian channel around Malta where heavy trawl fisheries are a serious threat. Little is known about the life history of the species, though it may be reasonable to assume that, like other skates, L. melitensis exhibits slow growth and low reproductive rates, making it susceptible to population declines.
Angel sharks (Squatina spp.) are dorso-ventrally flattened and exhibit broad pectoral fins, giving their anterior a ray-like appearance. S. aculeata is a bottom-dwelling (as are all angel sharks) endemic of the Eastern Atlantic and Western Mediterranean. The species is extremely vulnerable to bycatch from benthic trawls throughout its life; the impacts of such fisheries combined with a limiting life history have resulted in population declines across the species range.
Stingarees are stingrays of the genus Urolophus. The Java stingaree is only known from the type specimen which was collected 150 years ago. Though the species has not been recorded since, it is possible that specimens have been landed which have not have been recognised. Intensive fishing in the region means that any remnant population is likely to be small, restricted and in decline.
The dwarf sturgeon is a relative of the 
This giant of the Mekon delta, China, is threatened by harvesting – it is a popular and important food fish – and habitat alteration. The construction of the first dams built on the Mekong, one of the world’s longest rivers, and its tributaries began in the late 1980′s. The ecological havoc wreaked by these dams has emperiled many species. Once relatively abundant, P. sanitwongsei now appears to persist in two sub-populations either side of Khone Falls.
S. ezenami is endemic to Lake Kenzio-am, a small (2.4km^2) water-body in northern Caucasus, Russia. The trout was the only fish present in the lake and tributaries until the introduction of the Caspian gudgeon (Gobio holurus) and the European chub (Squalius cephalus). The latter species is particularly problematic as it feeds on the fry of S. ezenami. Specific information is scarce though it does appear that the species has been successfully introduced to Lake Mochokh, Daghestan.
There is little information available on the wild status of this species. Endemic to the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins of Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, it is a popular aquarium fish which appears to breed well in captivity (though exploitation of wild stocks may continue). Habitat alteration may also be a threat.
The red-finned blue-eye is endemic to Australia where it inhabits five freshwater springs at Edgbaston Springs, Queensland. It is the smallest of Australia’s freshwater fish species with a length of just 30mm. The size and temperature of the springs are subject to seasonal flux and it is thought the blue-eye uses seasonal floods as a means of migration and dispersal. It is thought that there are at most a few thousand individuals remaining.
R. valsanicola was previously found in fast-flowing waters of the River Arges, Romania, and its associated tributaries of Valsan and Raul Doamnei. The species disappeared from the Arges due to the construction of a reservoir in 1965. It is now restricted to 1km of the Vaslan river where it is threatened by overfishing, pollution, stone extraction and upriver damming activities.
This species is a live-bearer (gives birth to live young) endemic to Monterrey, Mexico. It is a popular aquarium and biological research species. There are fewer than 250 wild individuals remaining, spread between several fragmented sub-populations.
T. turskyi is restricted to an area of occupancy of less than 10km^2 in the Cikola river, Croatia. The species was thought extinct until a population was discovered in 2002. The dominant threats are water extraction, pollution and drought.
The Chinese paddlefish (the ‘giant panda of the rivers’) is one of two extant paddlefish species and is one of the largest freshwater fish in the world with a length of up to (and probably over) 7 metres. The species inhabits the Yangtze River, China, where the Gezhouba Dam has fragmented the habitat, preventing adults from reaching the upper parts of the river to spawn. The species has been subject to intense fishing and its young are easily netted due to their schooling habits. It has not been possible to breed the species in captivity and it is considered to be on the brink of extinction.
C. pennanti is a whitefish belonging to the Salmonidae (the salmon family). It is endemic to Lake Tegid, a 4km^2 waterbody in Snowdonia, Wales and may now be established in Llyn Arenig through relocation efforts. Primary threats are water degredation, seasonal hypoxia at depth and predation on eggs, fry and spawning adults by introduced ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus).
E. itajara is a large (2.5m in length; 350kg+) marine grouper. Mature adults are apex predators and thus exist at low densities on reefs where they hunt other fish and invertebrates. The species is a popular food item. Overfishing, a slow growth rate and loss of suitable juvenile habitat saw catches decline significantly; harvesting has been prohibited across some of the species range since 1990 (USA; Brazil – 2002; US Caribbean – 1993. See the 
S. poulsoni may be one of the rarest freshwater fish in the world. It is known from a single underground cave system (Key Cave, Alabama) where it migrates between pools during seasonal floods. Though deep pools are known within the cave system, no specimens have been identified therein. The fish are almost devoid of pigment and are entirely eyeless, relying on sensory papillae, neuromasts (‘tactile sensory organs’) and an exaggerated lateral line system for navigation and foraging. It is thought that there are 100 individuals within the cave system. They are threatened by groundwater pollution and a decline in the numbers of cave bats whose guano nutrifies the pools.
C. cavernicola is known from a single pool (18m x 2.5m; 30 – 52ft deep) in the Aigamas Cave, Namibia, where it inhabits shallow water shelves. It is a sightless species whose population size is unknown. Primary threats are collection for the aquarium trade and groundwater extraction.
This Californian beetle exhibits a life history which is in synchrony with vernal pool habitats, specifically those of California. These pools occur in areas of poor drainage and fill with water during the winter rains. Emergence and dormancy in the beetle are cued by the filling and subsequent drying of these pools. Agricultural development and urban encroachment has eliminated or degraded much of this habitat and mat-forming invasive plants restrict foraging. There are several fragmented sub-populations restricted to Solano County, though most occur on private land and require negotiated protection.
Lice are ectoparasites, variously feeding on the skin, debris, blood and sebaceous secretions of the host organism. The majority of louse species are host-specific, that is, they are only capable of surviving on a single species. H. oliveri is such a species, residing on and migrating between the bodies of the pygmy hogs (Porcula salvania) of India. Thus the fates of the lice are inexorably linked to those of their porcine hosts. Unfortunately, due to habitat destruction and degradation, agricultural activities and human encroachment, there are fewer than 250 mature pygmy hogs surviving in the wild.
Franklin’s bumblebee is described as having possibly the most limited distribution of any bumblebee species in the world; certainly of those inhabiting North America. Its range encompasses a rough oval of 305km (North to South) x 70km (East to West) between Oregon and California. Fairly common in 1998, numbers declined so dramatically that just 6 years later, in 2004, none were observed. One individual was found in 2006. Threats include habitat loss, pesticides and pollution and exotic diseases from introduced commercial hives.
The Cromwell chafer is a scarab beetle endemic to New Zealand. As the common name attests, it is found in Cromwell, Otago; or, to be more specific, in an 81 hectare reserve (the Cromwell Chafer Beetle Nature Reserve) between Bannockburn and Cromwell. Four sub-populations are known to exist within the reserve, associated with wind-blown sand dunes, cushion plant (Raoulia australis) and silver tussock (Poa cita). The species is threatened by habitat degradation and predation by introduced species and the little owl. (Athene noctua) Curiously, large areas of apparently favourable habitat remain uninhabited, suggesting that the limiting factors are poorly understood.
Tenebrionids, otherwise known as darkling beetles, are a globally distributed family of over 20,000 species. They are all herbivorous/detrivorous, consuming fresh and decaying vegetation. P. herculeanus is the largest of the tenebrionids, attaining a length of up to 30mm. When alarmed, the beetle secretes a musky chemical which also stains the skin purple. Being restricted to Frégate Island in the Seychelles, the species has a range of just 2.19 km^2. The species proved resilient to the arrival of humans and brown rats on the island. However, the beetle is particularly associated with the sanddragon tree (Pterocarpus indicus) which is currently being affected by a fungal disease. As with all similarly restricted species, the beetle is also vulnerable to the effects of invasive species and natural disasters.
The St. Helena earwig is the only one of more than 1,800 described earwig (Dermaptera) species to be listed on the IUCN Red List. It is also the largest of the earwigs, measuring up to 83mm in length. The species is endemic to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic (an area of roughly 122 km^2) where it typically inhabits gumwood forests and seabird colonies. Originally described in 1798, it was not collected again until 1913. Recent surveys failed to find nymphs or fossil cerci (the paired rear appendages) and it is feared that the clearing of the gumwood forest coupled with the impact of an introduced centipede (Scolopendra morsitans) may have driven the species to extinction.
A species of dragonfly endemic to Sáo Tomé and Príncipe where it probably inhabits rainforest streams. It has a range of occurrence no larger than 50km^2 and is threatened by habitat loss. At least half of the island (139km^2 area) has been deforested.
The dramatically named dracula ants of Madagascar are a relatively recent discovery; the first individuals were described in 1994 and a colony was not discovered until 2001. They are considered to be a primitive ant species, representing the link between modern ants and a hymenopteran wasp ancestor. This link is borne out by the number of joints between thorax and abdomen (one as opposed to two or three in other ants). Their curious method of feeding whereby they consume the hemolymph (‘blood’) of their own larvae via incision in a non-lethal manner may be a precursor to trophallaxis (passing food from mouth/anus to mouth) in modern ants. Habitat loss is a significant threat to the majority of Madagascan wildlife. It has been posited that this particular species may be extinct within ten years.
Endemic to the Valle d’Aosta in the Italian Alps, this butterfly exists in three fragmented sub-populations within an area of less than 10km^2. The population continues to decline; reductions of between 6 and 30% have been reported. The isolated nature of the preferred habitat means that there are few opportunities for dispersal, meaning that the species is highly unlikely to colonise other favourable areas. It is possible that there are a few thousand individuals remaining. Invasive plants and habitat alteration (here in the form of natural succession) are the primary threats. Collection for international trade could also be an issue despite restrictions on such activities at the main site.
D. australis exists on the Lord Howe Island group, 600km off the eastern coast of Australia in the Tasman Sea. They are large, heavy-bodied stick insects. The species was believed to have become extinct in the 1920′s after rats were introduced to the largest landmass in the group, Lord Howe Island. In 2001, a population was discovered on Ball’s Pyramid, a 1844 feet tall volcanic stack some 23km from Lord Howe Island. The insects were found under a single shrub; their current population is unknown though it is unlikely that there are more than 30 individuals. The captive population – borne of two pairs removed from Ball’s Pyramid – numbers in excess of 450 individuals, 20 of which have been returned to a protected zone on Lord Howe Island.
The Ogasawara Islands, also known as the Bonin Islands, are a 30-strong archipelago 1,000km South of Tokyo, Japan. A relatively large proportion of the species which inhabit these islands are endemic. Many are included on the IUCN Red List as a result of habitat destruction and the impacts of invasive species. R. ogasawarensis is one of five odonates (dragonflies and damselflies) endemic to the islands. It has seen its range reduce as suitable aquatic habitat has been destroyed or polluted. Predation by birds and the invasive lizard Anolis carolinensis (the Carolina anole) may also be problematic.
